Pular para o conteúdo principal

nytimes.com



Rosa Parks




From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
For other uses see   Rosa Parks (disambiguation)  .
Rosa Parks
Rosaparks.jpg
Rosa Parks in 1955, with   Martin Luther King, Jr.  in the background
BornRosa Louise McCauley
4 February 1913  Tuskegee, Alabama  , United States
Died24th October 2005 (age 92)Detroit, Michigan  , United States
NationalityAmerican
CareerCivil rights
Known forMontgomery Bus Boycott
HometownTuskegee, Alabama
Spouse (s)Raymond Park (1932-1977)
SignatureRosa Parks Signature.svg
Rosa Louise McCauley Parks   (4 February 1913 - 24 October 2005) was an   African American  civil rights   activist  , whom the   U.S. Congress   called "the first lady of civil rights", and "the mother of the freedom movement".  [1]   Her Birthday , February 4, and the day she was arrested, 1 December both have to   Rosa Parks Day  , celebrated in the U.S. states of California and Ohio.
On 1 December 1955 in   Montgomery, Alabama  refused to obey bus driver Parks   James F. Blake  's order that she her seat in the colored section to a white passenger, after the white section was full. Parks was not the first person to resist bus segregation. Others had similar steps were taken in the twentieth century, including   Irene Morgan   in 1946,  Sarah Louise Keys  in 1955, and the members of   Browder v. Gayle   suit (  Claudette Colvin  ,   Aurelia Browder  ,  Susie McDonald  , and   Mary Louise Smith  ) was arrested months front parks.   NAACP  Sponsor suspects that park was the best candidate for seeing through a court challenge after their arrest for   civil disobedience   in Alabama segregation laws but eventually hurt her case was bogged down in the state courts.  [2]  [3]
Parks' act of defiance and the   Montgomery Bus Boycott   was important symbols of the modern civil rights movement  . She became an international icon of resistance to   racial segregation  .She organized and collaborated with civil rights, including   Edgar Nixon  , president of the local chapter of the NAACP and   Martin Luther King, Jr.  won in the civil rights movement, a new minister in town, the national prominence.
At the time, Parks was secretary of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP. She had recently attended the   Highlander Folk School  , a   Tennessee   center for training activists for the rights of workers and racial equality. She acted as a private citizen "tired of giving in". Although widely honored in later years, she suffered for her act, she was fired from her job as a seamstress in a local department store.
Finally, she moved to   Detroit, Michigan  where. shortly before similar work From 1965 to 1988 she worked as a secretary and receptionist   John Conyers  , an African-American   U.S. Representative  . Upon retirement parks wrote her autobiography and lived a largely private life in Detroit. In her last years she suffered from   dementia  .
Park has received national recognition, including the NAACP from 1979   Spingarn Medal  , the Presidential Medal of Freedom  , the   Congressional Gold Medal  and a posthumous statue in the United States Capitol   National Statuary Hall  . After her death in 2005, she was the first woman and the second non-US government official to   lie in honor   in the   Capitol Rotunda  .

EARLY YEARS

Rosa Parks was born   Rosa Louise McCauley   in   Tuskegee, Alabama  , on 4 February 1913 to Leona (nee Edwards), a teacher, and James McCauley, a   carpenter  . She was of   African  ,   Cherokee  -  Creek  ,  [4]   and   Scotch-Irish   . descent  [5]   She was small as a child, suffering from poor health with chronic   tonsillitis  . When her parents separated, she moved with her ​​mother to   Pine Level  , just outside the capital,  Montgomery  . She grew up on a farm with her ​​maternal grandparents, mother, and younger brother Sylvester. They were all members of the  African Methodist Episcopal Church   (AME), a centuries-old independent black denomination founded by free blacks in  Philadelphia, Pennsylvania   in the early nineteenth century.
McCauley attended rural schools  [6]   until the age of eleven. A student at the Industrial School for Girls in Montgomery, she took academic and vocational training. Parks went to a laboratory school set by the   Alabama State Teachers College for Negroes  for secondary education, but dropped out to care for her grandmother, and later her mother, after they became ill.  [7]
Around the beginning of the 20th Century, had the former Southern new constitutions and electoral laws that passed effectively  disfranchised  black voters and Alabama, many poor white voters as well. Established under the white   Jim Crow laws  , passed after the Democrats regained control of southern legislators was the racial segregation in public facilities and shops in the imposed   South  , including public transportation. Bus and rail company enforced seating policy, with separate sections for blacks and whites. School bus transportation was unavailable for black students in the South in any form, and black education was always underfunded.
Parks recalled going to elementary school in Pine Level, where school buses took white students their new school and black students had to go to them:
"I want to see the bus pass every day ... But for me it was a way of life, we had no choice but to accept what was the custom, the bus was among the first ways I realized was there is a black world., and a white world ".  [8]
Although Parks' autobiography recounts early memories of the kindness of white strangers, she could not ignore the   racism   of their society.When the   Ku Klux Klan   down marched the street in front of her house, reminds parks her grandfather guarding the front door with a shotgun. [9]   The Montgomery Industrial School, founded and staffed by white northerners for black children, was twice of burnt  arsonist  . Its faculty was ostracized by the white community.
In 1932, Rosa Parks Raymond, married a   barber   from Montgomery. He was a member of the   NAACP  , which was at the time collecting money to support the defense of the   Scottsboro Boys  accused a group of black men falsely of raping two white women. Rosa took numerous jobs, the aide of domestic workers hospital. At the urging of her husband, she finished her high school studies in 1933, at a time when less than 7% of African Americans had a high school diploma. Despite the Jim Crow laws and discrimination of registrars, she succeeded in registering to vote in their third attempt.
In December 1943, Parks became active in the   Civil Rights Movement  , joined the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP, and was elected secretary. She later said: "I was the only woman there, and they needed a secretary, and I was too shy to say no."  [10]   She continued as secretary until 1957.
In 1944, in her role as secretary, she examines the gang-rape of   Recy Taylor  , a black woman from   Abbeville, Alabama  . Parks and other civil rights activists organized the "Committee for Equal Justice for Mrs. Recy Taylor" Start what the   Chicago Defender   as "seen the strongest campaign for equal justice in a decade".  [11]
Although never a member of the   Communist Party,   she and her husband have in the meetings and the Scottsboro case was a case which was brought to prominence by the Communist Party.  [12]
In the 1940s, Parks and her husband were members of the Voters League. Soon after 1944, she held a brief job at  Maxwell Air Force Base  , which did not allow the property of the Federal segregation. She rode on his integrated trolley. In an interview with her ​​biographer, Parks noted, "You could say Maxwell opened my eyes to it." Parks worked as a housekeeper and seamstress for Clifford and Virginia Durr  , a white couple.Politically   liberal  , the Durrs were her friends. They encouraged and eventually helped sponsor parks in the summer of 1955 to attend the  Highlander Folk School  , a training center for activism in the rights of workers and racial equality in   Monteagle, Tennessee  .
In August 1955 black teenager   Emmett Up   brutally after reportedly flirting with a young white woman murdered visiting relatives in  Mississippi  .  [13]   On 27 November 1955 Rosa Parks attended a mass meeting in Montgomery which raised this case and the recent murders of activists   George W. Lee   and   Lamar Smith  . The main speaker was   TRM Howard  , a black civil rights activist from Mississippi, the line  Regional Council of Negro leadership  .  [14]   The actions concerned discussions could take blacks to work for their rights.

PARKS AND THE MONTGOMERY BUS BOYCOTT

Main articles:   Montgomery Bus Boycott
Seat layout on the bus where Parks sat, 1December, 1955.

Montgomery buses: law and prevailing customs

In 1900, Montgomery had (could essentially choose only whites) is a city ordinance to separate bus passengers by race passed. Conductors were authorized to assign seats to accomplish this goal. By law, no passenger would be required to move or give up their seat and stand if the bus was crowded and no other seats were available. Over time and by custom, however, Montgomery bus drivers took to move the practice of requiring black riders when it releases no white-only spaces.
The first four rows of seats on each Montgomery bus were reserved for whites. Buses had "colored" sections for black people generally in the rear of the bus, even though blacks together more than 75% of passenger numbers. The sections are not fixed but are determined by the position of a movable mark. Black people could sit in the middle rows, until the white section filled if more whites seats needed were blacks who move to seats in the rear, stand, or, if there is no room, leave the bus. Black people could not sit on the aisle in the same row as white people. The driver was "colored" section sign, or by shifting the removed completely. If white people were already sitting in the front, black people on board at the front had to pay the fare, and then get out again. By the back door
For years, the black community had complained that the situation was unjust. Park said: "My resistance to the bus abused not begin with that particular arrest ... I did a lot of walking in Montgomery."  [6]
One day in 1943, Parks boarded the bus and paid the fare. Then she moved to her place, but driver   James F. Blake   told her to follow city rules and enter the bus again from the back door. Parks off the bus, but before she could back to the rear door board, Blake came out, so they go in the rain at home.  [15]

Her refusal to move

A plaque with the title "The Bus Stop" on Dexter Ave. Montgomery and St. the place Rosa Parks boarded the bus-tribute to them and the success of the Montgomery bus boycott.
After working all day, Parks boarded the Cleveland Avenue bus at 18.00 clock, Thursday, 1December 1955 in the city of Montgomery. She paid her fare and sat in an empty seat in the first row of back seats for blacks in the "colored" section reserved. Near the middle of the bus, their number was directly behind the ten seats reserved for white passengers. Initially, she had not noticed that the bus driver the same man, James F. Blake, who had left in the rain in 1943 was. As the bus traveled along the original route, filled all white only seats on the bus. The bus reached the third stop in front of the Empire Theater, and several white passengers on board.

The No. 2857 bus on which Parks before her arrest (rode a   GM "old look" transit bus , serial number 1132), is now a museum exhibit in   Henry Ford Museum  .
Blake noted that the front side of the bus was filled with white passengers is two or three. He moved the "colored" section sign behind Parks and demanded that four black people give up their seats in the middle section so that the white passengers could sit. Years later, in remembrance of the events of the day, the parks, "When the white driver again a step towards us, when he waved his hand and ordered us and out of our seats, I felt a determination cover my body like a quilt on a winter night ".  [16]
Signed by Parks' Blake said, "Y'all better make it light on yourself and let me these seats."  [17]   Three of them are respected. Park said, "The driver wanted us to stand up, the four of us we did not move at first, but he says." Let me these seats. "And the other three people moved, but I did not."  [18]   The black man sitting next to her gave up his seat back.  [19]
Parks moved, but on the window sill,. She did not get up to move to the colored section reclassification  [19]   Blake said, "Why do not you get up?" Parks responded, "I do not think I should get up." Blake called the police to arrest Parks. Calling the incident for   Eyes on the Prize  , a 1987 public television series on the Civil Rights Movement, said Parks, "When he saw me, he still sits, if I was going to ask, and I said," No I'm not. ' And he said, "Well, if you do not get up, I'm going to have to call the police and have you arrested." I said, "You can do that. '"  [20]
Rosa Parks' arrest
Booking photo of parks
Police report on parks, 1 December 1955 Page 1
Police report on parks, 1 December 1955 Page 2
Fingerprint   Card of parks
In a 1956 radio interview with   Sydney Rogers   in   West Oakland   several months after her arrest, Parks said she had decided, "I would have to know for once and for all what rights I had as a man and citizen".  [21]
In her autobiography   My Story   , she said:
People always say that I did not give up my seat because I was tired, but that's not true. I was not physically tired or more tired than I usually was at the end of a working day. I was not old, although some people have an image of me as old.I was forty-two. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in.  [22]
When Parks refused to give up her seat refused, a policeman arrested. As the officer took her away, she recalled that she asked, "Why do you push us around?" She remembered him saying: "I do not know, but the law is the law, and you're under arrest."  [23]   She later said: "I only knew that because I was arrested for being the very last time that I ever ride in humiliation of this kind ... "  [18]
Parks was charged with a violation of Chapter 6, Section 11 segregation law of the Montgomery City code, calculated  [24]   although technically they did not have a white-only taken place, they had been in a colored section.  [25]   Edgar Nixon  , President of the Montgomery chapter of the NAACP and leader of the   Pullman Porters Union  , and her friend   Clifford Durr   parks saved from jail the next night.  [26]

Montgomery Bus Boycott

Nixon consulted with   Jo Ann Robinson  , an   Alabama State College   professor and member of theWomen's Political Council   (WPC), the Parks' case. Robinson believed it important to take the opportunity and stayed up all night   mimeographing   over 35,000 leaflets announcing a bus boycott.The Women's Political Council was the first group to officially endorse the boycott.
On Sunday, the 4th Were announced in December 1955 plans for the Montgomery Bus Boycott to the black churches in the region, and a front-page article in   The Montgomery Advertiser   helped spread the word. At a rally church that night, the participants agreed to continue the boycott until she with the level of courtesy they expected, were hired to black drivers were treated, and until seating in the middle of the bus was on a first-come base handled.
The next day, Parks was tried on charges of   disorderly conduct   and violating a local regulation. The trial lasted 30 minutes. Once found guilty and fined $ 10, plus $ 4 in court costs, he  [18]  Parks appealed her conviction and formally challenged the legality of racial segregation. In a 1992 interview with  National Public Radio  's Lynn Neary, Parks recalled:
I did not want to be mistreated, I did not want to be deprived of a seat that I had paid. It was just time ... there was opportunity for me to take a stand to express the way I felt about the treatment in this way. I had not planned to get arrested. I had plenty to do without going to jail.But if I had to fight this decision, I did not hesitate to do this because I felt that we had endured that too long. The more we gave in, the more we will be met with this type of treatment that was more oppressive.  [17]
On the day of Parks' trial - December 5, 1955 - the WPC distributed the 35,000 leaflets to read the leaflet.
"We are ... asking every Negro to stay off the buses Monday in protest against the arrest and trial ... You can afford to stay out of school for a day. If you work, take a taxi or foot. Yet please, children and adults, do not ride the bus at all on Monday. Please stay away from the buses on Monday. "  [27]
It was raining that day, but the black community persevere in their boycott. Some rode in carpools, while others traveled in black-operated cabs that charged the same fare as the bus, 10 cents. Most of the remainder of the 40,000 black commuters walked, some as far as 20 miles (30 km).
Gathered this evening after the success of the one-day boycott, a group of 16 to 18 people at the Mt.Zion   AME Zion   Church to discuss boycott strategies. The group agreed that a new organization was needed to lead the boycott effort if it were continued. Rev.   Ralph David Abernathy   suggested the name "  Montgomery Improvement Association  "(MIA).  [28]   The name was adopted, and the MIA was formed. Its members elected as their president   Martin Luther King, Jr  , a relative newcomer to Montgomery, who was a young and mostly unknown minister of   Dexter Avenue Baptist Church  .  [29]
., This Monday evening gathered 50 Heads of State and Government of the African-American community to action to parks' arrest react to discuss   Edgar Nixon , president of the NAACP, said, "My God, look what segregation is in my hands! "  [30]  Parks was the ideal plaintiff for a test case against city and state segregation laws when she was a responsible, mature woman with an excellent reputation. King said that Mrs. Parks was regarded as "the Montgomery-not one of the best citizens of one of the finest Negro citizens, but one of the best citizens of Montgomery."  [6]   Parks was securely married and employed, possessed a quiet and dignified bearing; and was politically savvy.
Pink trial was being braked on appeal by the Alabama courts on their way to a federal appeal and the process could have taken years.  [31]   would hold together was a boycott of the length of time, have been a great burden. At the end sat the black residents of Montgomery boycott for 381 days, with considerable personal Opfern.Dutzende of public buses stood idle months, severely damaging the bus transit company's finances, until the law of their city, segregation on public buses after the U.S. Supreme Court Judgment repealed   Browder v. Gayle   that it was unconstitutional. Rosa was not included as a plaintiff in the Browder decision because the lawyer   Fred Gray   joined the courts would perceive they tried to evade their pursuit of their charges its way through the Alabama state court system.  [32]
Parks played an important role in raising international awareness of the plight of African-Americans and the Bürgerrechtsbewegung.König wrote in his 1958 book   Stride Toward Freedom   that Parks' arrest was the catalyst, not the cause of the protest: "The cause lay deep in the . term record of similar injustices "  [33]   He wrote: "Actually, no one can understand the action of Mrs. Parks, when he realizes that eventually the cup of endurance runs over, and the human personality cries out:" I can not take it. "  [34]

LATER YEARS

Parks on a Montgomery bus 21 Day of December 1956, Montgomery was legally integrated public transport. Rear park is Nicholas C. Chriss, a   UPI   reporter about the event.
After her arrest, Parks became an icon of the civil rights movement, but suffered difficulties as a result. Used because of the economic sanctions against activists, she lost her job at the department store. Her husband quit his job after his boss forbade him to talk about his wife or the legal case. Parks traveled and spoke extensively about the issues.
In 1957, Raymond and Rosa Parks left Montgomery for   Hampton, Virginia  , mainly because she was not able to find work. They refused also with King and other leaders of the civil rights movement fight Montgomery on the way forward. In Hampton, she found a job as a hostess in an inn at the   Hampton Institute , a   historically black college  .
Later that year, at the urging of her brother and sister-in-law in   Detroit, Michigan  , Sylvester and Daisy McCauley, Rosa and Raymond Parks, and her mother moved north to join them. Parks worked as a seamstress until 1965.
This year,   John Conyers  , an African-American   U.S. Representative  hired them. as a secretary and receptionist for his congressional office in Detroit She held this position until she retired in 1988.  [6]   In a telephone interview with   CNN   on 24 October 2005 Conyers recalled, "You treated her with respect because she was so quiet, so serene - just a very special person ... There was only one Rosa Parks".  [35]
The 1970s was a decade of loss and suffering for Parks in her personal life. Her family was plagued with illness, she and her husband had suffered stomach ulcers for years and both an inpatient. Then in the 60s, were her brother Sylvester and husband both diagnosed with cancer as her mother was. Parks sometimes visited three hospitals in the same day. Despite their fame and constant lectures parks was not a wealthy woman. She donated the most money from speaking to civil rights causes and lived on their employee wage and pension of her husband.Medical bills and time missed from work caused financial strain that they accept help from church groups and admirers required.
Her husband died of throat cancer at 19 August 1977 and her brother, her only brother died of cancer that in November. Your personal torments they could be removed from the civil rights movement. She learned from the newspapers of the death of   Fannie Lou Hamer  , once a close friend. Parks suffered two broken bones in a fall on an icy sidewalk, an injury that caused considerable and recurring pain. She decided to move with her ​​mother in an apartment for seniors. There, her mother Leona used through the last stages of cancer and geriatric dementia until she died in 1979 at the age of 92.
1980 Parks, rededicated widowed and without immediate family, to civil rights and educational organizations. She co-founded the   Rosa L. Parks Scholarship Foundation   for college graduates,  [36]  [37]   , to which they donated most of her speaker fees. In February 1987, she co-founded with Elaine Eason Steele, the   Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute for Self Development  , an institute that the "Roads to Freedom" runs bus tours, the young people to important civil rights and introduce   Underground Railroad  sites throughout the country. Though her ​​health declined as she entered her seventies, Park continued to make many appearances, and devoted much energy to these causes.




Published in 1992 in parks   Rosa Parks: My Story  , an autobiography aimed at younger readers, who tells her life details of her life to keep her decision to place her on the bus. A few years later, she published her memoirs, titled   Quiet Strength  (1995), based on their faith is focused in her life. On 30 August 1994 came Joseph Skipper, an African-American drug addict, her house and attacked the 81-year-old park in the course of a robbery. The incident sparked outrage in the United Staaten.Nach his arrest, Skipper said that he had not known he was in Parks' home but recognized her after entering skipper asked. "Hey, are not you Rosa Parks" to which they replied: "Yes." She handed him $ 3 when he demanded money, and an additional $ 50 when he demanded more Before fleeing Skipper struck Parks in the face..  [38]   Skipper was arrested and charged with various burglary offenses against Parks and other neighborhood victims loaded. He admitted guilt and on 8 August 1995, was sentenced to eight to 15 years in prison.  [39]  Suffering anxiety upon returning to their small central Detroit house following the ordeal, moved into Riverfront Park Towers , a secure high rise apartment building where she spent the rest of her life.
In 1994, was   the Ku Klux Klan   , the sponsor of a portion   U.S.   Interstate 55   in   St. Louis County   and   Jefferson County  , near St. Louis, Missouri  for clean up (which it says to sign that this section of the highway maintained by the organization have been allowed). Since the state could not refuse the KKK sponsoring Missouri lawmakers approved the name The motorway section the "Rosa Parks Highway". Asked how she felt about this honor, they have reported, commented: "It's always nice to think about."  [40]  [41]
1999 Parks filmed a cameo appearance for the television series   Touched by an Angel  . It was to be her last appearance in the film, health problems made ​​her increasingly an invalid.


In 2002 Parks received an eviction notice from her $ 1800 per month apartment due to non-payment of rent. Parks was unable to manage their own financial affairs by this time due to age-related physical and mental Verfall.Ihre rent was paid from a collection taken by Hartford Memorial Baptist Church in Detroit. When become their rent delinquent and her impending eviction was highly publicized in 2004, announced executives of property companies they had forgiven the back rent and would park to allow, by then 91 and in extremely poor health, rent-free living in the building for the rest of their lives.  [42]   their heirs and various interest groups at the time that had their financial affairs mismanagement claims.

IN POPULAR CULTURE






  • OutKast   had a song "  Rosa Parks  ", the most successful radio single from their 1998 album   Aquemini  . They had used her name without permission and in March 1999, a lawsuit (  Rosa Parks v. LaFace Records  ) was the parks' behalf against American hip-hop duo and their record company filed.  [43]   The lawsuit was settled 15 April 2005; OutKast, their producer and record labels paid Parks an undisclosed cash settlement. They also agreed to work with the Rosa and Raymond Parks Institute work to educational programs about the life of Rosa Parks to create. The record company and OutKast admitted to no wrongdoing. The responsibility for the payment of attorney's fees was not disclosed. [44]
  • The movie   Barbershop   (2002) featured a barber, played by   Cedric the Entertainer  , arguing that others had with other African Americans before Parks active integration in the bus, but it has the reputation as one NAACP secretary. Activists  Jesse Jackson  and   Al Sharpton   launched a boycott against the film, contending it was "disrespectful", but NAACP president  Kweisi Mfume  stated he thought the controversy was "exaggerated".  [45]   Parks was offended and boycotted the NAACP 2003   Image Awards  ceremony, which Cedric hosted.  [46]
  • The song   Daybreak   of   The Stone Roses  '1994er album   Second Coming   recognizes parks with the line   "Sister Rosa Lee parks / Love forever her name in your heart"  .

DEATH AND FUNERAL

Parks resided in   Detroit   until she died of natural causes at the age of 92 on 24 October 2005 in her apartment on the east side of the city. She and her husband never had children and she outlived her only sibling. She was sister-in-law, 13 nieces and nephews and their families, and several cousins, most of them residents of Michigan or Alabama survived by her.
City officials in Montgomery and Detroit announced on 27 October 2005 that the front seats of their city buses with black ribbons in honor of Parks until her funeral would be reserved. Parks' coffin was flown to Montgomery and taken in a horse-drawn hearse to the St. Paul   African Methodist Episcopal   (AME) church, where she   lay at rest   on the altar on 29 October 2005 dressed in the uniform of a church deaconess. A funeral was held the next morning. One of the speakers,   United States Secretary of State  Condoleezza Rice  said that if it had not been for Parks, she would probably have never become the Secretary of State. In the evening the casket was transported   Washington, DC   and transported by a bus similar to the one in which they their protest, to  lie in honor   in the   rotunda of the Capitol  .
Since the establishment in 1852 of the practice of lying in state in the rotunda park was 31 Person, the first American who had not been a U.S. government official, and the second owner (after the French planner   Pierre L'Enfant  werden.Sie honored) to be in this way was the first woman and the second black person lie in state at the Capitol .  [47]  [48]   An estimated 50,000 people viewed the casket there, and the event televised on 31 October 2005 broadcast. A funeral service took place in the afternoon at   Metropolitan AME Church   in Washington, DC.  [49]
With her ​​body and coffin returned to Detroit for two days, was resting at the park in   Charles H. Wright Museum of African American History  . Her funeral was seven hours and was on 2 November 2005 in the greater grace Temple Church in Detroit. After the service, an honor guard from the Michigan   National Guard   laid the U.S. flag over the casket and carried it to a horse-drawn hearse, which are intended to carry it, in daylight, was at the cemetery. As the hearse passed the thousands of people who were themselves the procession, many clapped and cheered loudly and released white balloons. Parks was buried between her husband and mother at Detroit   Woodlawn Cemetery   in the chapel mausoleum.The Chapel of the Rosa L. Parks Freedom Chapel was renamed in her honor.  [50]   Parks had previously prepared and placed a grave marker on the selected location with the inscription "Rosa L. Parks, wife, 1913 -."
When Parks died, her fame, so   ESPN   her death pointed to the "bottom line", the on-screen ticker, for all its networks. In general, only the information is found in the context of sports there.

LEGACY AND HONORS


The Rosa Parks Congressional Gold Medal
Parks and U.S. President   Bill Clinton
Rosa Parks Transit Center, Detroit

Barack Obama   is sitting on the bus. Parks was arrested sitting in the same line of Obama's, but on the opposite side.
Statue of Rosa Parks in Statuary Hall at the United States Capitol, Washington, DC
  • 1976   Detroit   renamed 12th Street "Rosa Parks Boulevard".  [51]
  • 1979 winner of the NAACP park the   Spingarn Medal  ,  [52]   the highest honor  [53]
  • In 1980 she received the Martin Luther King Jr. Award.  [54]
  • In 1983, she was inducted into the   Michigan Women's Hall of Fame   for her achievements in   civil rights .  [55]
  • 1990
  • In 1992, she received the Peace Abbey Courage of Conscience Award along with Benjamin Spock and others at the Kennedy Library and Museum in Boston, Massachusetts.
  • In 1995, she received the   Academy of Achievement's Golden Plate Award   in Williamsburg, Virginia.
  • She was awarded the 1996   Presidential Medal of Freedom  , the highest award given to the U.S. executive branch.
  • In 1998, she was the first International Freedom Conductor Award given to receive   National Underground Railroad Freedom Center  .
  • 1999
  • 2000
    • her home state awarded her the Alabama Academy of Honor,  [59]
    • it receives the first governor of the Medal of Honor for extraordinary bravery.  [60]
    • She was awarded two dozen honorary doctorates from universities around the world
    • It is made ​​an honorary member of   Alpha Kappa Alpha   Sorority.
    • The   Rosa Parks Library and Museum   on the campus of   Troy University   in Montgomery was dedicated to her.
  • 2002
  • 2003 No 2857 rode on the bus parks restored and placed on display in   the Henry Ford   [62]
  • 2004, in the   Los Angeles County   Metro Rail   system, the National Highway / Wilmington station, where the   Blue Line   connects with the   Green Line  , has been officially named the"Rosa Parks Station"  .  [63]  [64]
  • 2005
    • On 30 October 2005 President   George W. Bush   issued a proclamation ordering that all flags be flown on U.S. public areas both within the country and abroad   at half-mast on the day of Parks' funeral.
    • Metro Transit   in   King County, Washington   Posters and stickers devoted the first forward-facing seat of all buses in parks down 'memory shortly after her death, [65]  [66]
    • the American Public Transportation Association declared first December 2005, the 50thAnniversary of the arrest to be a "National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day". [67]
    • On this anniversary, President George W. Bush signed   Pub.L. 109-116  , directing that a statue of Parks be placed in the United States Capitol  National Statuary Hall  . With the signing of the resolution to do the management of the Joint Commission on the Library, the President said:
      By her statue in the heart of the nation's Capitol, we commemorate her work for a perfect union, and we commit to continue to fight for justice for every American.  [68]
    • Portion of   Interstate 96   in   Detroit, Michigan,   was renamed by the state assembly as Rosa Parks Memorial Highway in December 2005.  [69]
  • 2006
  • 2007   Nashville, Tennessee  , renamed Metro Center Boulevard (8th Avenue North) (  U.S. 41A  and   TN 12  ) in September 2007 as Rosa L. Parks Boulevard.  [71]
  • 2009 On 14 July 2009, the   Rosa Parks Transit Center   opened in Detroit at the corner of Michigan Avenue and Cass.  [72]
  • 2010 In   Grand Rapids, Michigan  named a square in the heart of the city is   Rosa Parks Circle  .
  • 2012 U.S. President Barack Obama visited the famous Rosa Parks Bus at Henry Ford Museum for an event in Dearborn, Michigan, 18 April 2012.
  • 2012 A street in   West Valley City  ,   Utah  's second largest city, leading to the Utah Cultural Celebration Center Rosa Parks Drive renamed.  [73]
  • 2013
    • On 1 February, President   Barack Obama   announced 4 February 2013, as the "100th anniversary of the birth of Rosa Parks." He called "on all Americans to come up with appropriate service, community and educational programs to honor Rosa Parks's lasting legacy that day."   [74]
    • On 4 February at Rosa Parks '100. To celebrate birthday, the   Henry Ford Museum declared the day a "National Day of Courage" with 12 hours of virtual and on-site activities with nationally recognized speakers, interpretive musical and dramatic performances, a panel presentation of   Rosas history   and a reading the tale   Quiet Strength  . The actual bus on which Rosa Parks sat was made ​​available. To the public on board and sit in the seat that Rosa Parks refused to give up  [75]
    • On 4 February 2000 were birthday wishes from people all over the United States gathered in 200 news graphics at a celebration of the 100th Held birthday on transformed   Davis Theatre for the Performing Arts   in Montgomery, Alabama. This was the   100th Birthday Wishes project   managed by the   Rosa Parks Museum   at  Troy University   and the   Mobile Studio   and was also an event declared by the Senate.  [75]
    • In both events, the   USPS   unveiled a stamp in her honor.  [76]
    • On 27 February was the parks first African American woman to have her picture displayed in   National Statuary Hall  . The monument is a part of Capitol art collection of nine other women featured in the   National Statuary Hall Collection  .  [77]

SEE ALSO

Portal iconAfrican American portal
Portal iconBiographical Portal



REFERENCES

  1. ^   Pub.L. 106-26  , accessed 13 November 2011. Those passages can be seen by clicking through the text or PDF.
  2. ^   . Gonzalez, Juan; Goodman, Amy (Friday, March 29, 2013) "The Other Rosa Parks: Now 73, Claudette Colvin was the first to refuse Giving Up on Montgomery bus seat"  .   Democracy Now!  .   Pacifica Radio  . 25 minutes in. NPR  . Accessed 18April 2013  .
  3. ^   . Taylor Branch (1988),   "Parting the Waters: America in the King Years"  . Simon & Schuster  . Accessed 5 February 2013  .
  4. ^   Douglas Brinkley,   Rosa Parks  , Chapter 1, from the book by Lipper / Viking (2000), published in excerpts   ISBN 0-670-89160-6  .  chapter excerpts   on the website of the   New York Times  . Accessed 1 July 2008.
  5. ^   James Webb,   "Why do you need to know Scots-Irish"  , Parade  , 3 October 2004. Accessed 1 July 2008.
  6. ^   a   b   c   d   Shipp, ER   (2005-10-25).   "Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement dies"  . New York Times. p. 2  . Retrieved on 2010-01-01  .
  7. ^   Shraff, Anne (2005).   Rosa Parks: Tired of Giving In Enslow.. Pp. 23-27.   ISBN   978-0-7660-2463-2  .
  8. ^   "The Story Behind the Bus"  .   Rosa Parks Bus  .   , Henry Ford  . Retrieved on 2008-07-01  .
  9. ^   Congressional Record Volume 141, Number 176 (Wednesday, November 8, 1995)   , citing Walt Harrington, "a person who wanted to be free",   The Washington Post Magazine, 8 October 1995
  10. ^   Feeney, Mark (25 October 2005).   "Rosa Parks, civil rights icon, dead at 92"  .   Boston Globe  . Retrieved on 2009-07-31  .
  11. ^   . McGuire, Danielle   "Opinion: It's time to free Rosa Parks off the bus"  . Retrieved on 2012-12-22  .
  12. ^   "How" "Racial Equality brought to the South" communism  .
  13. ^   "Justice Emmett Up to 1955 murder"  ,   United States Department of Justice  , May 2004, accessed 27 May 2007. R. Alexander Acosta, Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division explains. "This brutal murder and grotesque miscarriage of justice outraged a nation and helped galvanize support for the modern American civil rights movement"
  14. ^   David T. Beito and Linda Royster Beito,   Black Maverick: TRM Howard struggle for civil rights and economic performance  (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 2009), pp. 138-39.
  15. ^   Woo, Elaine (2005-10-25).   "She set Wheels of Justice in Motion"  .   Los Angeles Times  . Accessed 22 July 2011  .
  16. ^   Williams, Donnie, Wayne Greenhaw (2005).   The Thunder of Angels: The Montgomery Bus Boycott and the People who Broke the Back of Jim Crow  . Chicago Review Press. p.48. ISBN   1-55652-590-7  .
  17. ^   a   b   "Parks recalls Bus Boycott, Excerpts from an interview with Lynn Neary,"   National Public Radio  , 1992, bound   "Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies"  NPR, 25 October, 2005.Retrieved 4 July 2008.
  18. ^   a   b   c   "civil rights icon Rosa Parks dies at 92"  ,   CNN , 25October, 2005. Retrieved 4 July 2008.
  19. ^   a   b   Audio interview of Parks linked from   "Civil Rights Icon Rosa Parks Dies"  ,   National Public Radio  , 25 October 4 2005.Abgerufen July 2008.
  20. ^   Williams, Juan   (2002).   Eyes on the Prize: America's Civil Rights Years, 1954-1965  . Penguin Books. p. 66   ISBN  0-14-009653-1  .
  21. ^   Marsh, Charles (2006).   The Beloved Community: How faith shapes social justice, from the Civil Rights Movement to Today . Basic Books. p. 21,   ISBN  0-465-04416-6  .
  22. ^   Parks, Rosa, James Haskins (1992).   Rosa Parks: My Story Dial Books.. p. 116   ISBN   0-8037-0673-1  .
  23. ^   Rosa Parks interview   (video and text of the interview), Academy of Achievement  , 2 Accessed 13 June 1995November 2011.
  24. ^   Wright, Roberta Hughes (1991).   The Birth of the Montgomery Bus Boycott  . Charro Press. p. 27   ISBN   0-9629468-0-X  .
  25. ^   Hawken, Paul (2007).   Blessed Unrest: How the largest movement has arisen in the world and why no one saw it coming  . Viking. p. 79th   ISBN   0-670-03852-0  .
  26. ^   Burns, Stewart (1997).   Daybreak of Freedom: The Montgomery Bus Boycott  . UNC Press. p. 9   ISBN   0-8078-4661-9  .
  27. ^   a   b   Rita Dove  ,   "Heroes and Icons: Rosa Parks: Her simple act of protest galvanized America's civil rights revolution" ,   Time  , 14 June, 1999. Retrieved 4 July 2008.
  28. ^   Washington, James M. (1991).   A Testament of Hope: The Essential writings and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr Harper Collins .. p. 432   ISBN   0-06-064691-8  .
  29. ^   Shipp, ER   (25 October 2005).   "Rosa Parks, 92, Founding Symbol of Civil Rights Movement, Dies"  .   New York Times  . p.1 . Retrieved 4 July 2008  .
  30. ^   Parks, Rosa, James Haskins (1992).   Rosa Parks: My Story Dial Books.. p. 125   ISBN   0-8037-0673-1  .
  31. ^   "The Freedom Rides of 1961"  .   NC Civic Education Consortium  . University of North Carolina  . Accessed 5February 2013  .
  32. ^   "Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903 (1956)"  .   Institute King Encyclopedia  . stanford.edu  . Accessed 5 February 2013  .
  33. ^   Washington, James M. (1991).   A Testament of Hope: The Essential writings and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr Harper Collins .. p. 437   ISBN   0-06-064691-8  .
  34. ^   Washington, James M. (1991).   A Testament of Hope: The Essential writings and speeches of Martin Luther King, Jr Harper Collins .. p. 424   ISBN   0-06-064691-8  .
  35. ^   "Parks remembered for her courage, humility"  . CNN. 2005-10-30  . Retrieved on 2008-07-01  .
  36. ^   "Editorial: Rosa Parks' legacy: nonviolent power"  ,  Madison Daily Leader  , 1 October 2005. Accessed 13 November 2011.
  37. ^   The Rosa L. Parks Scholarship Foundation  , page accessed 13 November 2011. (Not a quote for parks role as founder, for the Foundation itself).
  38. ^   Associated Press  , "Assailant Recognized Rosa Parks"Detroit Free Press  , 3rd September 1994. History   accessible online   than in the printed   Reading Eagle  , 2 Accessed online 13 September 1994 November 2011.
  39. ^   "Man gets prison for attack on Rosa Parks",  San Francisco Chronicle  , August 8, 1995.
  40. ^   Happy Birthday, Rosa Parks!   out of Ilena Rosenthal, Women eNews, 4 Feb. 2003 (accessed 2 February 2009).
  41. ^   The name game  , Snopes.com, last updated 3 December 2007. Accessed on 13 November 2001.
  42. ^   Associated Press,   landlords will not ask Rosa Parks to pay rent  ,   MSNBC  , 6 December 13 2004.Abgerufen November 2011.
  43. ^   . Wallinger, Hanna (2006)   Transitions: Race, culture, and the dynamics of change  . LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster.p. 126   ISBN   3-8258-9531-9  .
  44. ^   Jet  , Vol 107, No. 18, 2nd May 2005
  45. ^   Associated Press,   "" Barbershop "actor Image Awards host"  ,   Los Angeles Times  , 25 January 13 2003.AbgerufenNovember 2011.
  46. ^   "Rosa Parks Boycotts NAACP award ceremony"  .Recordnet.com  . Associated Press. 9 March 2003  . Accessed 22 November 2011  .
  47. ^   "Those who have lain in state"  . Architect of the Capitol.2009-12-01  . Retrieved on 2009-12-01  .
  48. ^   Memorial funeral home or in the Capitol Rotunda  , senate.gov (United States Senate); Contents cited to Architect of the Capitol. Accessed 23 November 2011.
  49. ^   Wilgoren, Debbi and Theola S. Labbe (1 November 2005). "An overflowing Tribute to an icon"  .   The Washington Post  . Accessed 10 December 2012  .
  50. ^   Santiago Esparza, "private park remains in death"   Detroit News  , 3 November, 2005.   Available online   at   Internet Archive  , archived 14 June 2008. Accessed 5 July 2008.
  51. ^   "Rosa L. Parks Collection. Papers, 1955-1976"  . Walter P. Reuther Library. p. 1  . Accessed 22 November 2011  .
  52. ^   Springarn Medal Winners: 1915 to today  , NAACP, no date, but list goes up to 2010. Accessed 13 November 2011.
  53. ^   NAACP Honors Congressman Conyers with 92 Spingarn Medal  , NAACP Press Release, April 3, 9 2007.Abgerufen July 2008.
  54. ^   "Black History Month"  . gale.cengage.com  . Accessed 5February 2013  .
  55. ^   "Michigan Women's Hall of Fame"  .Hall.michiganwomen.org  . Retrieved on 2012-08-13  .
  56. ^   Ruth Ashby,   Rosa Parks: Freedom Rider   Sterling Publishing  ISBN 978-1-4027-4865-3
  57. ^   "Part 1-475 for parks with the name"  .   Tuscaloosa News  .05/09/1990  . Accessed 20 June 2012  .
  58. ^   "1999 State of the Union Address"  . Accessed 5 February 2013  .
  59. ^   "Alabama Puts Rosa Parks In The Academy Of Honor"  .Chicago Tribune  . Accessed 17 December 2011  .
  60. ^   Rosa Parks Museum during Civil Rights Movement Anniversary Gala in Montgomery dedicated  .   jet  . 18thDecember 2000. p. 8  . Accessed 17 December 2011  .
  61. ^   Asante, Molefi Kete (2002). 100 Greatest African Americans: A Biographical Encyclopedia. Amherst, New York. Prometheus Books.   ISBN 1-57392-963-8  .
  62. ^   "Parks Bus Restored"  .   parks restored bus  . Accessed 20June 2012  .
  63. ^   "MAX station renamed to honor Rosa Parks"  . TriMet. (4 February 2009)  . Retrieved on 2009-11-27  .
  64. ^   "TriMet MAX station name honors Rosa Parks"  .   Portland Tribune  . (3 February 2009)  . Retrieved on 2009-02-10  .
  65. ^   "Rosa Parks Honored on Metro Bus Fleet  [  dead link  ]  ",  King County Metro Online  . Accessed 5 July 2008.  [  dead link  ]
  66. ^   Local Digest   article "Buses are monument to Rosa Parks",Seattle Times  , 1 November 2005. Accessed 13 November 2011.
  67. ^   "National Transit Tribute to Rosa Parks Day"  . American Public Transportation Association. 20,070,927,220,506.Archived from the   original   on 27 September 2007  . Accessed 13 November 2011  .
  68. ^   "President signs HR 4145 into a statue of Rosa Parks in U.S. Capitol Place"  . 2005-12-01  . Retrieved 4 December 2005.
  69. ^   Michigan legislation   (2001).   "Michigan Memorial Highway Act (Excerpt) Act 142 of 2001 250.1098 Rosa Parks Memorial Highway"  . State of Michigan  . Accessed 18 August 2006  .
  70. ^   "Rosa Parks"  . birdsofwinter.com  . Accessed 5 February 2013  .
  71. ^   "Tennessee Career Center at Metro Center"  . Department of Labor and Workforce Development  . Accessed 17 December 2011  .
  72. ^   Bill Shea (9 July 2009).   "Detroit Rosa Parks Transit Center opens Tuesday"  . Crain's Detroit Business  . Accessed 18 April 2010  .
  73. ^   Cimaron Neugebauer (15 November 2012).   "West Valley City renames street after Rosa Parks"  .   The Salt Lake Tribune.
  74. ^   "Presidential Proclamation - 100th Anniversary of the Birth of Rosa Parks"  . Accessed 5 February 2013  .
  75. ^   a   b   "observation of the 100th anniversary of Rosa Parks"  .Congressional Record 112 Congress (2011-2012)  . The Library of Congress. 19th December 2012  . Accessed 5February 2013  .
  76. ^   "Rosa Parks stamp for late civil rights icon's 100th birthday revealed"  . CBS News  . Accessed 5 February 2013  .
  77. ^   "Rosa Parks: First statue of African-American female to Grace Capitol"  . ABC News  . Accessed 27 February 2013  .

FURTHER READING

Library Resources
About Rosa Parks
  • Editorial. Year 1974. ". Two decades later,"   New York Times   (May 17): 38 ("Within a year of  Brown  ,   Rosa Parks, a tired seamstress in Montgomery, Alabama, was, like   Homer Plessy   60 years earlier, arrested for her refusal to move to the back of the bus. ")
  • Barnes, Catherine A.   Journey from Jim Crow: The Desegregation in the South Transit,  Columbia University Press, 1983.
  • Rosa Parks with   James Haskins  ,   Rosa Parks: My Story   New York. Scholastic Inc., 1992   ISBN 0-590-46538-4
  • . Brinkley, Douglas,   Rosa Parks: A Life  , Penguin Books, 25. October 2005   ISBN 0-14-303600-9

EXTERNAL LINKS

Find out more about   Rosa Parks   on Wikipedia  's sister projects
Definitions and translations   from Wiktionary
Media   from Commons
Learning resources   from Wikiversity
Quotations   from Wikiquote
Source texts   from Wikisource
Textbooks   from Wikibooks
Multimedia and interviews
Other

RELATED INFORMATION

Honorary title
Predecessor  Ronald Reagan
People who have   located in the state or honor
in the   United States Capitol rotunda
30 October 2005 - 31 October 2005		Successor  Gerald Ford
Standard data

Comentários

Postar um comentário

Postagens mais visitadas deste blog

巴西马里亚纳大坝灾难的法律纠纷在英国打响

Imagem
      一项价值 63 亿美元的诉讼已在英国启动，索赔要求为巴西所谓的马里亚纳大坝灾难的受害者提供赔偿。   2015 年巴西丰道尾矿坝的一部分倒塌时，数百万吨的有毒采矿废料摧毁了附近的社区并破坏了当地环境。 十九人死亡，整个村庄被摧毁，但广泛的影响要大得多。 律师事务所 PGMBM 的执行合伙人汤姆·古德黑德 (Tom Goodhead) 表示：“这是极其毁灭性的。它夺走了 19 条生命，但它完全摧毁了三个村庄，然后沿河 680 多公里已经感受到环境影响。数百万人受此影响，他们的生计终结。”   他补充说：“这是巴西历史上最大的环境灾难。如果你想到像埃克森瓦尔迪兹号或 BP 石油泄漏这样的悲剧，这就是灾难的规模。” 超过 200,000 个受影响的当事人已提出集体索赔，初步法庭听证会将决定是否可以根据英国法律审理更广泛的案件。 必和必拓是大坝运营商的母公司之一。 作为一家英澳公司，索赔人认为他们有权通过英国的法律体系。 但必和必拓否认这一点，并表示这些法律诉讼不属于英国法院，因为它与巴西正在进行的工作和听证会重复。 迄今为止，大坝的两位业主已承诺提供约 34 亿美元用于支持修复和补偿。   村庄正在重建，该地区正在进行大规模的修复和恢复计划。 曼彻斯特的初始诉讼将在最后八天进行，并将确定是否可以在英国举行更广泛的法庭案件。   如果允许，未来的听证会将试图确定谁应对损害和随后的灾难负责，以及是否应该支付赔偿金。 预计将于 2020 年晚些时候做出判决。 字体图片谷歌 字体编辑 https://newseu.cgtn.com/news/2020-07-23/Legal-battle-over-Brazil-s-Mariana-Dam-Disaster-starts-in-UK-SllVKxpnj2/index.html
Leia mais

fcbarcelona.com

Imagem
Become an Observer Login About The Observers Home Contact Us فارسی       عربية       English       Français       Print 4 Send this page 24/03/2014  /  SPAIN 'I'M PREPARED TO DIE TO GET TO EUROPE': MIGRANT LIFE IN SPAIN'S MELILLA photo       video       illegal migrants       Spain Screen capture of a video posted on to YouTube by  EQUO Melilla  showing two migrants who successfully crossed the border into Melilla. More and more African migrants are trying to cross into two Spanish enclaves on the coast of Morocco. For them, the enclaves of Ceuta and Melilla represent a golden opportunity to escape the poverty or persecution of their homelands, and reach Europe. Mike – from Ivory Coast – is one of them. He even man...
Leia mais

SAG Награды 2014: Актеры "шума" побед, подтягивает гонку Оскаров

Imagem
РАЗВЛЕЧЕНИЯ МЕСТНОЕ Л.А. СООБЩЕНИЕ ПОЛИТИКА ПРЕСТУПЛЕНИЕ ОБРАЗОВАНИЕ OC WESTSIDE ОКРЕСТНОСТИ СРЕДА ДАННЫЕ & КАРТЫ МЕСТНОЕ ПЛЮС США ПОЛИТИКА НАЦИЯ СЕЙЧАС ПОЛИТИКА ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕМ ТОП БИЛЕТА НАУКА НАУКА СООБЩЕНИЕ НЕКРОЛОГИ МИР МИР СЕЙЧАС АФГАНИСТАН ВОЙНА АФРИКА АМЕРИКА АЗИЯ ЕВРОПА БЛИЖНИЙ ВОСТОК БИЗНЕС ДЕНЬГИ & КО ТЕХНОЛОГИИ АВТОМОБИЛИ ШОССЕ 1 ОБЩЕСТВО ГОРОД ЛИЧНЫЕ ФИНАНСЫ РАБОТА НЕДВИЖИМОСТЬ BUSINESS ПЛЮС СПОРТ СПОРТ ПРЕДПРИЯТИЕМ LAKERS КЛИПСАТОРЫ ЛОВКАЧИ АНГЕЛЫ НФЛ KINGS НХЛ / DUCKS ОСК UCLA ПОДГОТАВЛИВАЕТ РЕЗУЛЬТАТЫ РАЗВЛЕЧЕНИЯ НАГРАДЫ: КОНВЕРТ КИНО ТЕЛЕВИДЕНИЕ МУЗЫКА ЗНАМЕНИТОСТИ ИСКУССТВО ПРОМЫШЛЕННОСТЬ ВЫБОРЫ КРИТИКОВ РАЗВЛЕЧЕНИЯ ПЛЮС ЗДОРОВЬЕ НАУКА СООБЩЕНИЕ МЕДИЦИНА ФИТНЕС & ПИТАНИЕ ПСИХИЧЕСКОЕ ЗДОРОВЬЕ ЗДРАВООХРАНЕНИЕ MIND & BODY ЗДОРОВЬЕ ПЛЮС СТИЛЬ ГЛАВНАЯ ЕДА КАЛИФОРНИЯ COOKBOOK МОДА КНИГИ LA ДЕЛ КОМИКСЫ READER ФОТОГРАФИИ ЖИВОЙ ПЛЮС TRAVEL КАЛИФОРН...
Leia mais